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Aliquot #146: When Is the Best Time to Exercise?

Posted on June 5th 2026 (about 2 months)

When is the best time to exercise? It depends on your goal. Because your body...

exercise

The Optimal Mobility Protocol for a Durable Body | Dr. Kelly Starrett

Posted on April 13th 2026 (3 months)

Dr. Kelly Starrett joins Dr. Rhonda Patrick to discuss building a durable body, reclaiming lost mobility, and raising more resilient young athletes.

exercise

This Exercise Routine Makes Your Heart 20 Years Younger

Posted on October 1st 2025 (10 months)

In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick reveals the top fitness marker for longevity, why VO₂ max matters, and exercise protocols proven to...

Topic Pages

  • Cold exposure

    Acute cold exposure triggers sympathetic catecholamine release and peripheral vasoconstriction, enhancing arousal while diminishing muscular power and endurance performance.

  • Sauna

    Repeated sauna-induced hyperthermia elevates plasma volume and heat-shock proteins, augmenting cardiovascular efficiency and thus endurance performance.

News & Publications

  • Post-exercise infrared sauna use contributes to a 25% increase in jump height and a 6.8% peak power boost in female athletes—a potential tool for enhancing power production. pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Exercise Performance Muscle Sauna

    Infrared saunas are gaining in popularity among athletes as a recovery tool, but their effects on strength training adaptations remain uncertain. While traditional saunas can impair performance, infrared saunas may offer a more effective and comfortable recovery option. A recent study found that using infrared saunas after exercise enhances power production but doesn’t influence muscle growth.

    Forty female team sport athletes participated in the study, with half using an infrared sauna after training sessions for six weeks. Sauna sessions were done three times weekly for 10 minutes at 50°C (122°F) following their training. All participants underwent body composition measurements and physical performance tests, including sprint tests, jumps, and leg press exercises, before and after the training period.

    Both groups improved in neuromuscular performance and muscle size. However, the infrared sauna group showed greater jump height and peak power improvements, with a 25% increase in jump height and a 6.8% increase in peak power. Five-minute sprint times were also faster in the infrared sauna group, though not statistically significant. While both groups gained lean mass, the infrared sauna group experienced small body mass and fat mass increases. There were no marked differences between the groups in muscle hypertrophy or other body composition changes.

    These findings suggest that post-exercise infrared sauna use enhances power output over time but doesn’t affect muscle growth. Learn more about the benefits of infrared and traditional sauna use in our overview article.

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  • Curcumin, a compound derived from turmeric, aids in reducing muscle damage and soreness after intense exercise, potentially speeding up recovery. www.tandfonline.com
    Exercise Performance Inflammation Muscle Curcumin Polyphenol

    Intense exercise—especially eccentric movements like downhill running or heavy weightlifting—can cause microscopic muscle damage, inflammation, and soreness. While this process is part of adaptation, excessive damage can delay recovery and hinder performance. A recent study found that curcumin, a compound derived from turmeric, may help reduce muscle damage and soreness, potentially speeding up recovery.

    Researchers analyzed the findings of 11 studies on curcumin and exercise-induced muscle damage. The various studies focused on healthy adults who exercised regularly and took curcumin before, during, or after workouts.

    The analysis revealed that curcumin supplementation may ease muscle soreness, reduce inflammation, and improve recovery after strenuous exercise. However, the benefits depended on dose (which ranged from 90 milligrams to 2.5 grams), bioavailability, and timing, with post-exercise supplementation appearing most effective.

    These findings suggest that curcumin could be a useful supplement for athletes looking to minimize muscle soreness and recover faster. However, its low bioavailability may limit its effectiveness. In addition, the investigators noted that many of the studies were small, limiting their findings' applicability. Curcumin is a polyphenolic compound. Learn more about polyphenols in our overview article.

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  • Omega-3 supplementation linked to lower levels of brain injury markers in athletes exposed to repeated subconcussive impacts. www.sciencedirect.com
    Exercise Brain Performance Omega-3

    Contact sports can take a toll on the brain, even without obvious concussions, and new evidence indicates that repetitive, subconcussive head impacts may cause subtle but considerable brain injury over time. A recent review and analysis found that some evidence points to lower brain injury markers among athletes who took omega-3 fatty acid supplements—especially among those with higher play time—but overall, results are mixed.

    Researchers conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis using data from three studies on American football players—who often receive multiple subconcussive head impacts during a typical season. They examined whether supplementation with omega-3s reduced levels of neurofilament-light, a protein that rises in the blood following brain injury.

    They found that across the three studies, omega-3 supplementation reduced neurofilament-light levels by 60% to 100% compared to a placebo in one study, prevented marked increases in another, and showed no effect in the third, with reductions primarily observed in starter players.

    A subconcussive head impact is a minor blow to the head that does not cause immediate symptoms of a concussion but can still lead to cumulative brain damage over time. Athletes frequently sustain hundreds of these minor impacts each season, allowing them to accumulate unnoticed. Because these injuries are usually asymptomatic, players may not receive the treatment or restrictions they need for recovery, exacerbating neurological damage.

    These findings indicate that omega-3 supplementation may protect the brain from the cumulative effects of subconcussive head impacts in contact sports. However, the investigators cautioned that their review only included three studies—with mixed results—and further research is needed to establish the optimal dose and timing for this potential protective effect. Learn about the many health benefits of omega-3s in this episode featuring Dr. Bill Harris.

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  • The absence of gut microbes limits exercise capacity and reduces glucose utilization, highlighting the surprising role of microbiota in physical endurance. www.nature.com
    Exercise Gut Microbiome Performance Microbes

    If you’re struggling with exercise performance, your gut health might be partly to blame. The gut microbiota is critical for boosting exercise performance and regulating energy metabolism. A recent study found that mice without gut microbes, known as germ-free mice, had lower exercise capacity and used oxygen and glucose less efficiently during physical activity.

    Researchers compared germ-free mice to mice with normal gut bacteria. They fed both groups a regular diet and allowed them to exercise on running wheels. They measured the animals' body composition, oxygen and carbon dioxide usage, and glucose levels to assess how the absence of gut microbes affected exercise performance and energy use.

    They found that germ-free mice gained less weight, had lower fat mass, and had lower aerobic exercise capacity than mice with normal gut bacteria. Germ-free mice also exhibited reduced glucose storage and usage, impairing their capacity to fuel physical activity. Additionally, their fat tissue adapted by breaking down more fat, making them leaner and less prone to obesity, but at the cost of reduced energy availability during physical activity.

    These findings suggest that the absence of gut bacteria limits the body’s ability to store and use glucose, adversely affecting exercise performance. They also highlight gut microbes' vital role in supporting metabolism and physical endurance. Learn more about gut microbes' effects on metabolism in this clip featuring Dr. Michael Snyder.

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  • Initiating exercise later in life improves physical performance by up to 31%, demonstrating its beneficial effects against age-related decline. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Exercise Aging Performance

    A sedentary lifestyle contributes to systemic inflammation, a critical player in the pathogenesis of many chronic diseases. However, evidence suggests it’s never too late to experience the benefits of regular exercise. A recent study found that physical performance measures in older adults who initiated an exercise regimen improved by as much as 31%.

    Researchers collected data from two observational cohorts of older adults—an active group (318 participants) and a sedentary one (146 participants). All participants completed a battery of physical performance tests at baseline, six months, and one year later, including the six-minute walk test, the 30-second chair stand, and the timed up-and-go.

    The researchers found that the two groups' physical performance differed considerably after one year. Exercising adults' performance improved in all measures, while sedentary adults' performance declined:

    *A decrease indicates faster speed.

    These findings suggest that regular, sustained exercise confers protection against age-related declines in physical performance in older adults. They also highlight the importance of interventions to reduce sedentary behavior and increase physical activity to support overall health and function. Learn more about how exercise, especially vigorous exercise, promotes longevity in this episode featuring Dr. Rhonda Patrick.

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  • Astaxanthin supplementation and aerobic exercise reduce fatigue, enhance physical performance, and improve cognition. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Exercise Performance Inflammation Carotenoids Supplements

    Fatigue is a common condition characterized by persistent tiredness or exhaustion that can affect daily activities. Inflammation is critical in fatigue because it disrupts normal cellular function and energy production. A recent review and meta-analysis found that astaxanthin, a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory carotenoid compound, reduces fatigue.

    Researchers analyzed the findings of studies investigating the effects of astaxanthin supplementation on fatigue, cognition, and exercise efficiency. The analysis included 11 randomized controlled trials involving 346 healthy participants. Four of the studies included amateur or professional athletes.

    The researchers found that supplementing with astaxanthin for eight to 12 weeks improved cognition slightly but did not improve reaction time. However, when combined with exercise, astaxanthin enhanced fat oxidation and improved physical performance. Further analysis revealed that the benefits of astaxanthin were more pronounced with aerobic exercise but were dose-dependent, with doses of 20 milligrams or more and supplementation for longer than 12 weeks providing the greatest benefit.

    These findings suggest that astaxanthin reduces fatigue and improves aspects of performance. Astaxanthin is widely available as a dietary supplement but is also present in salmon and salmon roe. Learn more about salmon roe in our overview article.

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  • Magnesium supplementation reduces post-workout muscle soreness and enhances recovery in both recreational runners and elite athletes. translational-medicine.biomedcentral.com
    Exercise Performance Magnesium Muscle

    Muscle contraction relies on a magnesium-dependent calcium transport system. Consequently, magnesium levels drop after exercise, increasing muscle soreness and impairing performance. A recent review found that magnesium supplementation reduces muscle soreness, improves performance, and protects against muscle damage.

    Researchers reviewed the findings of four studies investigating the effects of magnesium supplementation on muscle soreness. The studies included 73 participants (60 males and 13 females) between the ages of 19 and 27. One study focused on muscle soreness, one on running performance, and two on team sports performance.

    They found that 350 milligrams of magnesium glycinate daily reduced muscle soreness and improved recovery after resistance training. Similarly, 500 milligrams of magnesium oxide and stearate taken daily for a week reduced muscle soreness in recreational runners with low dietary magnesium intake. Markers of muscle damage decreased in elite basketball players who took 400 milligrams of magnesium daily throughout the season. Competitive cyclists experienced similar effects at the same dose.

    These findings suggest that magnesium supports muscle health and performance in recreational and competitive athletes. The review’s authors posited that physically active people need 10% to 20% more magnesium than the recommended doses taken two hours before physical activity, even during the off-season. For more information about magnesium, check out our deep-dive podcast and our comprehensive overview article.

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  • Heat shock proteins enhance elite cyclists' performance in low-oxygen conditions. www.sciencedaily.com
    Exercise Performance Heat Stress Cold Stress Hypoxia

    During exposure to temperature extremes or hypoxia (low oxygen levels), cells increase their expression of heat shock proteins to stabilize unfolded proteins and repair damaged ones. This phenomenon, referred to as the heat shock response, occurs at the expense of other cellular proteins to protect the cell. Evidence from a 2016 study suggests that the heat shock response enhances athletic performance in low-oxygen environments characteristic of high altitudes.

    The study involved 21 elite cyclists who engaged in ten 60-minute training sessions in either low-oxygen or hot conditions. Before and after the intervention, they performed a time trial, where researchers tested their tolerance to low-oxygen levels.

    The researchers found that training during heat exposure improved athletic performance nearly as well as low oxygen exposure. Expression of heat shock protein 72 and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α, a protein that mediates the body’s response to low oxygen levels, increased in both scenarios.

    Heat-shock proteins comprise a large, highly conserved family of proteins that are present in all cells. They play prominent roles in many cellular processes, including immune function, cell signaling, and cell-cycle regulation. Cells maintain a constant level of HSPs to facilitate aspects of the protein synthesis machinery, including assembly, folding, export, turn-over, and regulation. However, stress can upregulate HSP production.

    These findings suggest that training in a hot environment enhances performance in low-oxygen settings. Learn more about heat exposure via sauna use in our comprehensive overview article.

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  • Forty percent of sports supplements are mislabeled; 12 percent contain banned substances. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Supplements Performance Drug Policy

    The global dietary supplement market currently exceeds $150 billion and is expected to grow in the coming years. However, according to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), many dietary supplements – particularly sports, bodybuilding, and sexual enhancement products – contain hidden active ingredients that may elicit harmful effects. A recent study found that 12 percent of sports supplements contained illegal additives, and 40 percent didn’t contain the substances identified on the label.

    Researchers purchased sports supplement products containing any one of five plant-based compounds commonly touted as having athletic performance-enhancing effects: R. vomitoria, methylliberine, turkesterone, halostachine, or octopamine. They analyzed the various products for the presence and quantity of the five ingredients and any FDA-banned ingredients.

    They found that of the 57 sports supplements they tested, 23 (40 percent) didn’t contain any of the substances listed on the label. 28 (49 percent) contained the wrong amount (with quantities ranging from 0.02 to 334 percent of the labeled amount). 7 (12 percent) contained banned ingredients, including various stimulants and several unapproved drugs: omberacetam, octodrine, oxilofrine, and deterenol, and 1,4-dimethylamylamine.

    These findings shed light on the inaccurate labeling of dietary supplements and highlight concerns about the presence of banned substances. Although this was a small study, and the researchers only analyzed one sample of each product, the findings align with previous work that identified banned products, such as ephedra and caffeine quantities that differed from those identified on the label in athletic performance supplements. Other research has identified omberacetam and other unapproved drugs in cognitive enhancement supplements.

    Without laboratory testing, it’s impossible to know the contents of a dietary supplement product, so consumers should check the label to see if an independent, third-party organization

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  • Ketone supplements marginally hinder high-intensity cycling performance, echoing earlier research. www.sciencedaily.com
    Exercise Performance Ketosis

    Ketones are molecules produced by the liver during the breakdown of fatty acids. Supplemental ketones – referred to as endogenous ketones – are popular among many athletes due to their purported beneficial effects on performance. A new study shows that endogenous ketone supplementation impairs athletic performance in endurance athletes.

    Researchers asked 23 well-trained adult cyclists to consume a ketone supplement (providing 0.35 grams of ketones per kilogram body weight) or a placebo 30 minutes before completing a 20-minute cycling trial on an exercise bike. The participants repeated the cycling trial a week later with the opposite beverage.

    The researchers found that the participants' power output after taking the ketone supplement was 2.4 percent lower than after taking the placebo, regardless of the order in which they performed the two treatments. The cyclists' average heart rate during the trial was lower after taking the ketone ester, but other factors, such as peak heart rate, glucose levels, and perceived exertion, were similar between the two situations. Out of the 22 participants, 11 felt their perceived exertion was greater after taking the ketone ester, seven felt the same in both situations, and four felt less exertion after taking the ketone ester than when taking the placebo.

    Although this was a small study, these findings suggest that exogenous ketone supplementation impairs performance in endurance athletes in a setting of short-duration, high-intensity training. However, some evidence suggests that ketone supplementation enhances performance in extreme settings in which hypoxia may be a factor, such as mountain climbing. Learn more in this clip featuring ketone expert Dr. Dominic D'Agostino.

    Coming soon: an interview with Dr. Martin Gibala, one of the investigators involved in this study.

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  • Intense cycling exercise at 80% maximum heart rate improves memory via endocannabinoid action on the hippocampus www.sciencedaily.com
    Exercise Brain Performance Memory Cannabinoid Aerobic

    Exercise activates the endocannabinoid system to promote learning and memory formation.

    Scientists have identified robust links between physical exercise and brain health. Some of the mechanisms that drive the beneficial effects of exercise on the brain include increases in brain volume and connectivity, improved blood flow, enhanced synaptic plasticity, and increased neurogenesis – the formation of new neurons. Findings from a 2020 study suggest that moderate- to vigorous-intensity exercise improves motor sequence memory via endocannabinoid action on the hippocampus.

    Motor sequence memory involves learning predefined sequences of interrelated motor actions, such as playing the piano or dancing. The hippocampus interacts with various neural networks to support the formation of motor sequency memory.

    Endocannabinoids are small lipid molecules produced in the body that bind to cannabinoid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Endocannabinoids regulate many physiological processes, including movement control, pain processing, brain development, and learning and memory. The two major endocannabinoids in the body are anandamide and 2-arachindonyl glycerol.

    The study involved 15 healthy adults (average age, 23 years) who had at least fair respiratory fitness, as measured via VO2 max. Participants completed a serial reaction time task (a widely used measure of learning and memory) before and after three conditions: moderate-intensity exercise, vigorous-intensity exercise, and rest. Prior to performing the task, participants consumed a standardized carbohydrate-rich breakfast. During the task, the investigators measured the participants' behavior, brain activity, and circulating anandamide (endocannabinoid) levels.

    They found that vigorous-intensity exercise markedly improved motor sequence memory compared to rest. Moderate-intensity exercise also improved motor sequence memory, but to a lesser degree. The improvements coincided with increased levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide and enhanced hippocampal activity.

    These findings suggest that vigorous-intensity exercise promotes motor sequence memory and learning and underscore the benefits of exercise on cognitive function. Learn about the beneficial effects of aerobic exercise in our overview article.

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  • Mid-life long duration antibiotic use of >= two months linked to poorer scores in cognition, learning, working memory, and attention in later life www.sciencealert.com
    Brain Aging Microbiome Performance Memory Antibiotics Dementia

    Antibiotic use in midlife increases a person’s risk for neuropsychiatric diseases.

    Antibiotics are prescribed for a wide range of infectious diseases. In 2015, healthcare providers in the United States wrote nearly 270 million antibiotic prescriptions – more than 800 antibiotic prescriptions for every 1,000 people. Health experts estimate that 30 percent of these prescriptions were likely unnecessary. Findings from a new study suggest that antibiotic use in midlife increases a person’s risk for neuropsychiatric diseases.

    The study included approximately 15,000 midlife participants (average age, 55 years) enrolled in the Nurses’ Health Study II, an ongoing prospective cohort study of female nurses. The participants completed questionnaires regarding their general health, diet, lifestyle, and medication use during the previous four years, including antibiotic use and the reason for which the antibiotic was prescribed. The investigators categorized the participants' cumulative antibiotic use as none, one to 14 days, 15 days to two months, and two months or more. Participants also completed a battery of neuropsychological tests.

    The investigators found that participants who took antibiotics for at least two months over the previous four years were more likely to perform worse on neuropsychological tests than participants who did not take antibiotics. The influence of antibiotic use on neuropsychological test scores was roughly equivalent to three to four years of aging. These findings held true even after considering other factors that could influence cognitive function, including age and coexisting illnesses.

    These findings suggest that longer exposure to antibiotics in midlife negatively influences cognitive health, underscoring the importance of moderating antibiotic use in older adults. They also support findings from animal studies that suggest antibiotic use early in life alters neuropeptide signaling pathways that influence behavioral development. Learn more about the effects of antibiotic use in early life in this clip featuring Dr. Eran Elinav.

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  • Exercise may improve thinking skills and thicken areas of the brain in people as young as 20 www.sciencedaily.com
    Exercise Brain Aging Performance

    From the article:

    Researchers found that aerobic exercise increased thinking skills. From the beginning of the study to the end, those who did aerobic exercise improved their overall scores on executive function tests by 0.50 points, which was a statistically significant difference from those who did stretching and toning, who improved by 0.25 points. […] “Since a difference of 0.5 standard deviations is equivalent to 20 years of age-related difference in performance on these tests, the people who exercised were testing as if they were about 10 years younger at age 40 and about 20 years younger at age 60,” Stern said.

    Increased thickness of the outer layer of the brain in the left frontal area:

    “Since a difference of 0.5 standard deviations is equivalent to 20 years of age-related difference in performance on these tests, the people who exercised were testing as if they were about 10 years younger at age 40 and about 20 years younger at age 60,” Stern said.

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  • Vitamin C improves mental health and performance. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Vitamin C Performance Mental Health Antioxidant Supplements Cognition

    Vitamin C is an essential nutrient, widely recognized for its antioxidant properties. The vitamin protects the body from damage caused by reactive oxygen species and participates in many physiological processes, including immune function, wound healing, fatty acid metabolism, neurotransmitter production, and blood vessel formation, as well as other key processes and pathways. Findings from a new study suggest that vitamin C improves mental health and performance in young adults.

    The study investigators conducted a cross-sectional study involving 214 young adults between the ages of 20 and 39 years. They measured vitamin C concentrations in the participants' serum (the watery portion of blood). Then they conducted a randomized controlled trial involving participants whose vitamin C concentrations were considered inadequate (less than 50 micromoles per liter). Half of the participants received 500 milligrams of vitamin C twice daily for four weeks; the other half received a placebo. They assessed the participants' fatigue, attention, anxiety, and other aspects of work performance and mental health status. They also measured serum concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a type of neurotrophin – or growth factor – that controls and promotes the growth of new neurons.

    They found that higher serum vitamin C concentrations among participants in the cross-sectional study correlated with greater attention but had no influence on fatigue or mood. Participants who took the supplemental vitamin C had greater attention and work absorption and showed improvements in fatigue, performance, and work engagement. However, supplemental vitamin C did not influence mood or BDNF concentrations.

    These findings suggest that vitamin C benefits mental performance and health in young adults. Learn more about vitamin C in our overview article.](https://www.foundmyfitness.com/topics/vitamin-c)

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  • Resveratrol and exercise improve quality of life for older adults. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Exercise Aging Performance Mitochondria Muscle Supplements Resveratrol

    Currently selected for this coming member’s digest by team member Melisa B.

    Adequate exercise is one of the most effective lifestyle interventions to improve aging, but many people, especially older adults, can find it difficult to exercise. In a study published this month, researchers tested the effects of resveratrol as an adjuvant therapy to exercise for older adults with physical limitations.

    The word “adjuvant” has roots in Latin that mean “helping toward.” Adjuvant therapies are add-ons that may improve the effectiveness of other interventions. Resveratrol is known to activate mitochondria through a protein called PGC-1α, the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis. Therefore, resveratrol may boost the benefits of exercise by enhancing mitochondrial adaptation in skeletal muscle.

    The purpose of this randomized controlled pilot study was to determine the safety and feasibility of chronic exercise combined with resveratrol supplementation. The investigators split a group of 60 adults (average age, 71 years) with physical limitations into three groups. All three groups completed supervised walking and whole-body resistance training twice weekly for 12 weeks. One group took 500 milligrams of resveratrol daily, another took 1,000 milligrams of resveratrol daily, and the third group took a placebo. The participants completed a battery of physical function tests and gave blood so the researchers could measure markers of cardiovascular risk.

    On average, participants completed 82 percent of their exercise sessions and took 85 percent of their resveratrol doses, indicating that the intervention was acceptable for most participants. The rate of adverse events was similar between groups with an average of nine events, indicating that the intervention was safe. Pilot studies are not designed to evaluate the effect of the study intervention on health; however, the authors reported some promising early results. Participants in the 1,000 milligram group exhibited a clinically-significant increase of 449 meters in their 6-minute walk test and increased levels of citrate synthase, a common marker of mitochondrial volume.

    The authors are planning a large-scale clinical trial to build on these preliminary results.

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  • Six weeks of 20-minute high-intensity interval training significantly improves "high-interference" memory, large fitness gains associated w/ more BDNF www.sciencedaily.com
    Brain Performance Memory Aerobic BDNF

    From the article:

    Scientists have found that six weeks of intense exercise – short bouts of interval training over the course of 20 minutes – showed significant improvements in what is known as high-interference memory, which, for example, allows us to distinguish our car from another of the same make and model.

    […]

    They also found that participants who experienced greater fitness gains also experienced greater increases in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that supports the growth, function and survival of brain cells.

    “Improvements in this type of memory from exercise might help to explain the previously established link between aerobic exercise and better academic performance,” says Jennifer Heisz, an assistant professor in the Department of Kinesiology at McMaster and lead author of the study.

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  • Assessment of cardiorespiratory fitness using submaximal exercise testing predicts 5-year mortality risk beyond conventional risk factors. www.mayoclinicproceedings.org
    Exercise Performance Diagnostics Mortality Cardiovascular

    Cardiorespiratory fitness is a measure of the body’s aerobic capacity – the ability to deliver oxygen to skeletal muscles – during sustained physical activity. Poor cardiorespiratory fitness, along with dyslipidemia, family history, hypertension, age, cigarette smoking, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and physical inactivity, increases a person’s risk for cardiovascular disease and death. Findings from a new study indicate that cardiorespiratory fitness measured by submaximal testing predicts risk for deaths from all causes.

    The most accurate way to assess cardiorespiratory fitness involves measuring maximal oxygen uptake, often referred to as VO2 max, during a graded exercise test in a laboratory, clinical, or research setting. The sheer logistics of measuring VO2 max in large groups of people present challenges, however. Submaximal exercise testing, which typically involves completion of a standardized exercise or task using a treadmill or bicycle, is a viable option in these settings.

    The study involved more than 58,000 people between the ages of 40 and 69 years who were enrolled in the UK Biobank Prospective Study. The authors of the study categorized the participants according to their level of risk based on the participants' age, sex, medical history, and biochemical indicators. Then the participants underwent submaximal exercise testing using a stationary exercise bicycle.

    The results of the submaximal exercise testing revealed a linear relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and the risk of death. In fact, submaximal exercise testing served as a highly reliable predictor of death, even beyond conventional risk factors, especially among people with few risk factors.

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  • Traumatic brain injury disrupts the brain's waste removal system, allowing toxic proteins to accumulate in the brain. www.sciencedaily.com
    Brain Alzheimer's Parkinson's Performance Concussion Protein Neurodegeneration Blood-Brain Barrier

    From the article:

    The new research focuses on the impact that traumatic brain injury has on the glymphatic system. It has been long observed that the protein tau plays an important role in the long-term damage sustained by the brain after a trauma. Tau helps stabilize the fibers, or axons, that nerve cells send out to communicate with their neighbors.

    However, during trauma, large numbers of these proteins are shaken free from the axons to drift in the space between the brain’s cells. Once unmoored from nerve cells, these sticky proteins are attracted to each other and, over time, form increasingly larger “tangles” that can become toxic to brain function.

    Under normal circumstances, the glymphatic system is able to clear stray tau from the brain. However, when the researchers studied the brains of mice with traumatic brain injury, they found that the trauma damaged the glymphatic system, specifically the ability of astrocytes – a support cell found in the brain – to regulate the cleaning process.

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