Development
Episodes
Dr. Rhonda Patrick discusses concerns about early smartphone and tablet access among kids and its effects on mental health later in life.
Dr. Rhonda Patrick explores taurine's longevity role, cocoa flavanols, training adaptations, and oral hyaluronic acid in a Q&A.
In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick describes some of the harmful effects of nicotine and cigarette smoke exposure on breast milk quality and breastfeeding duration.
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Dr. Rhonda Patrick discusses concerns about early smartphone and tablet access among kids and its effects on mental health later in life.
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Rhonda Brain Diet Aging Hormones Omega-3 Fasting Memory Testosterone Dementia Development Skin CocoaDr. Rhonda Patrick explores taurine's longevity role, cocoa flavanols, training adaptations, and oral hyaluronic acid in a Q&A.
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In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick describes some of the harmful effects of nicotine and cigarette smoke exposure on breast milk quality and breastfeeding duration.
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In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick describes the strange phenomenon and role of mammary stem cells in breast milk.
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In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick describes the unique community of microbes present in human breast milk.
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In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick discusses the risks associated with maternal consumption of caffeine.
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In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick discusses how breastfeeding benefits mothers and describes some of the challenges women who breastfeed face.
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In this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick describes the immune-boosting properties of breast milk.
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Breastfeeding associated w/ improvements in cardiovascular health in adults who were preterm infantsIn this clip, Dr. Rhonda Patrick describes how breastfeeding reduces the risk of cardiovascular complications associated with pre-term birth.
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In this clip, Dr. Eran Elinav discusses the importance of the early childhood period in shaping a healthy microbiome.
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Evidence indicates that the heritability of epigenetic aging is about 40 percent. This is seen in supercentenarians and their offspring, who tend to age slower than their younger counterparts.
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Comprehensive overview: Breast milk's nutritional and non-nutritional components, and health benefits for mother and infant through breastfeeding
Topic Pages
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Breast milk and breastfeeding
In infants, breastfeeding delivers breast-milk bioactives—nutrients, hormones, microbes—that orchestrate neuroimmune, metabolic, and gastrointestinal development.
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Omega-3 fatty acids
During neurodevelopment, omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid incorporates into neuronal membranes, regulating fluidity, synaptogenesis, and transcriptional pathways.
News & Publications
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The air around a child’s bed may carry more chemical pollutants than the bedroom itself. A recent study suggests sleeping spaces are a key source of toxic exposure for young children.
Researchers collected air samples from the sleeping areas and bedrooms of 25 children between 6 months and 4 years old living in Canada. They also tested the children’s mattresses for chemical emissions, looking for three types of compounds: phthalates (used to soften plastics), flame retardants, and UV filters (used in dyes and textiles). These chemicals belong to a group called semivolatile organic compounds, or SVOCs, which can escape from products and linger in air, dust, and on surfaces.
The researchers detected nearly 30 different chemicals in each of the three sampling locations—bedroom air, sleeping area air, and mattresses. The air in the sleeping area had higher chemical levels than the surrounding bedroom, confirming that bedding and other nearby items were likely contributing to children’s exposure. In many cases, the mattresses themselves released higher amounts of certain phthalates and flame retardants, while bedding appeared to be a major source of flame retardants.
These findings suggest that young children face increased chemical exposure while they sleep, a substantial concern given how much time they spend in their sleeping environments. The investigators proposed that parents reduce exposure by regularly washing bedding and sleepwear, as fabrics tend to trap airborne chemicals. Furthermore, some textiles can also release chemicals, so having fewer items in the bed is beneficial.
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High-protein breakfasts in teens may mitigate future heart disease risk by increasing gene expression associated with blood vessel growth and staving off inflammation. www.sciencedirect.com
Breakfast is often touted as the most important meal of the day. But for teenagers, the composition of that breakfast may be more critical than previously thought. A recent study found that eating a high-protein breakfast increases gene expression associated with cardiovascular health, potentially protecting teens against heart disease later in life.
The study included 30 teens who routinely skipped breakfast. For six months, 10 of the teens ate a normal-protein breakfast (10 grams of protein) daily, 10 ate a high-protein breakfast (30 grams of protein), and 10 continued skipping breakfast. The normal-protein and high-protein breakfasts both provided 350 calories. Researchers measured the teens' levels of microRNAs (small, non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression) associated with higher cardiovascular disease risk.
They found no difference in miRNA levels among the three groups. However, they observed a significant pattern over time for one microRNA—miR-126-3p—which increased more in those eating high-protein breakfasts than those who skipped breakfast. miR-126-3p regulates angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels) and helps maintain blood vessel integrity. It also reduces inflammation—a driver of cardiovascular disease.
This small study suggests that eating a high-protein breakfast can have lasting effects on teens who regularly skip breakfast, potentially reducing their risk of cardiovascular disease later in life. Skipping breakfast coupled with late-night eating can have harmful effects on metabolic health, too. Learn more in this clip featuring Dr. Ruth Patterson.
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Adolescent attention deficits are linked to higher cannabis use in young adulthood due to weaker connectivity in attention-related brain networks. elifesciences.org
Cannabis use during adolescence has profound effects on critical cognitive functions, particularly sustained attention—the ability to focus on a task over time. A recent study found that problems with sustained attention in early adolescence may predict increased cannabis use later in life.
The study involved more than 1,000 participants, starting at age 14 and continuing until age 23. Researchers measured the participants' attention performance and brain connectivity throughout the study. They also monitored their substance use over time to uncover long-term patterns.
They found that poor sustained attention at age 14, in conjunction with weaker connectivity in attention-related brain networks, predicted higher cannabis use in young adulthood. Differences in these brain networks were stable over time, and the findings were consistent when tested in an external group of participants.
These findings suggest that sustained attention and its underlying brain networks serve as reliable early markers of susceptibility to cannabis use. Cannabis use may disrupt the delicate balance of brain chemicals like dopamine, a neurotransmitter critical for attention and motivation. Learn how to improve attention by leveraging the effects of dopamine in this episode featuring Dr. Andrew Huberman.
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Breast milk lipid molecule stimulates brain stem cells to produce oligodendrocytes, effectively reversing white matter damage in neonatal mice. corporate.dukehealth.org
Premature infants are at greater risk for developing cerebral palsy, a motor disability caused by brain injury-related white matter losses, impairing movement, balance, and posture. However, a new study in mice indicates that a cholesterol-like molecule present in breast milk may protect against cerebral palsy. Mice administered breast milk were protected from the harmful effects of white matter losses.
Researchers tested the ability of several oxysterols (naturally occurring cholesterol-like molecules) in human breast milk to promote the production of oligodendrocytes, a type of cell that stimulates white matter development. They found that the oxysterol 20-alpha hydroxycholesterol induced oligodendrocyte production through the sonic hedgehog pathway – a well-known pathway involved in neurodevelopment.
Then, they gave neonatal mice that had experienced inflammation-driven brain injury and subsequent white matter losses 20-alpha hydroxycholesterol. They found that the compound promoted white matter formation, reversing the animals' brain injuries.
These findings suggest that 20-alpha hydroxycholesterol, a compound present in breast milk, influences neonatal white matter development and may benefit infants at risk for cerebral palsy or other brain injury-related disorders. Learn more about the benefits of breast milk in our overview article.
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Infant gut microbes including Actinobacteria and Bifidobacterium linked to improved social attention tests, suggesting a role for the microbiome in early cognitive development. neurosciencenews.com
The gut-brain axis is a complex communication system that links the gut microbial community, digestive system, and nervous system. A new study shows that the gut-brain axis plays a critical role in brain development. Infants demonstrating specific patterns of enhanced brain activity, such as rhythmic processing, exhibited unique gut microbial populations and metabolic processes.
Researchers collected fecal samples from 56 infants between the ages of four and six months and analyzed their microbial composition through metagenomic sequencing. They evaluated the infants' brain activities while listening to a rhythmic beat via electroencephalogram (EEG). Then, using behavioral tests, they assessed aspects of the infants' cognitive abilities, including neural rhythm tracking, language discrimination, and joint attention.
They found that infants who performed well in the joint attention test exhibited specific gut microbial patterns that included higher numbers of Actinobacteria, Bifidobacterium, and Eggerthella, and lower numbers of Firmicutes, Hungatella, and Streptococcus. The EEGs revealed unique neural activity patterns associated with enhanced rhythmic processing, which varied according to the presence of specific microbes. In addition, these neural activity patterns were associated with upregulated metabolic processes involving microbes linked with neurodevelopment.
Neural rhythm tracking facilitates information organization across time, influencing perception, social communication, language, and cognition. Language discrimination differentiates between language and non-language. Joint attention is a social skill that influences infants' capacity to learn from others, affecting early language acquisition and overall cognition.
This study was small; however, its findings suggest a potential connection between the gut microbiome and early cognitive development. It also highlights the intricacies of the gut-brain axis, with potential implications for understanding early brain development and cognitive function. Learn more about the role of the gut microbiota in this episode featuring Drs. Erica and Justin Sonnenburg.
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Neuroprotection across generations: Worm study highlights ursolic acid's effects. neurosciencenews.com
Maternal exposures during pregnancy can influence the physiology and development of a woman’s child. But scientists aren’t sure whether this influence extends across generations. A new study in worms suggests that consuming ursolic acid – a bioactive compound found in apples and herbs, such as rosemary and sage – during pregnancy promotes the production of key fats in the brain, boosting neuronal health and function in progeny.
Researchers studied the effects of ursolic acid supplementation in roundworms – a well-established model of human genetics. They fed the worms ursolic acid and assessed its effects on subsequent generations.
They found that the worms' neural transport processes (similar to synaptic connectivity in vertebrates) were more efficient after consuming ursolic acid. The worms also demonstrated reduced susceptibility to axonal fragility in adulthood. Interestingly, these benefits transcended a singular generation, manifesting within subsequent progeny.
The mechanism driving these effects centered around the modulation of sphingosine-1-phosphate, a bioactive metabolite of sphingolipid – a type of fat implicated in neural protection. The offspring of worms that consumed ursolic acid demonstrated elevated sphingosine-1-phosphate levels, thereby conveying neural protection across multiple generations.
These findings suggest that dietary-acquired lipid metabolites can provide neuroprotection across generations. They also underscore the importance of maternal nutrition during pregnancy. Learn about other aspects of maternal (and paternal) health that influence offspring in this clip featuring Dr. Elissa Epel.
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Swabbing C-section newborns with their mothers' vaginal fluid promotes healthier neurodevelopment at 3 and 6 months, bridging the gap to vaginally del www.newscientist.com
Infants born by cesarean section have different microbial communities in and on their bodies than those born vaginally, potentially increasing their risk of developing certain diseases, such as asthma and obesity. But a new study shows that vaginal microbiota transfer – exposing newborns to fluids from their mother’s vagina – may rectify these differences.
The study involved 68 infants born by cesarean section. Researchers swabbed the infants' skin with sterile gauze soaked in either the mother’s vaginal fluids or saline immediately after birth. They assessed the infants' neurodevelopment at three and six months of age and analyzed the microbial makeup of the infants' guts.
They found that infants who received vaginal microbiota transfer scored higher on neurodevelopment assessments than those who received saline. They also had healthier, more mature gut microbiomes – comparable to infants born vaginally.
These findings suggest that exposing infants born via cesarean section to their mother’s vaginal fluids promotes appropriate neurodevelopment and corrects alterations in gut microbial populations. Learn more about the importance of establishing a healthy microbiome early in life in this clip featuring Dr. Eran Elinav.
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Breastfeeding for a year or longer protects infants against obesity in later life.
Obesity is a condition in which a person has too much body fat. Having obesity increases a person’s risk for many chronic diseases, including diabetes, heart disease, cancer, and others. New research suggests that breastfeeding for a year or longer protects infants against obesity in later life.
Breastfeeding is the biologically superior way to feed an infant. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of an infant’s life and then continued breastfeeding while introducing age-appropriate foods until an infant is 12 months old or older. This provides the infant optimal nutrition and immunity while supporting growth and development.
To model short-term versus long-term breastfeeding in humans, the investigators weaned one group of rat pups at three weeks of age (typical weaning time) and another group at four weeks of age (delayed weaning time, comparable to a year or more in humans). Once the animals were weaned, half of each group were fed a normal diet, and half were fed a high-fat diet until they reached adulthood. The investigators measured the animals' bodyweight, analyzed their body composition, and measured their energy expenditure.
They found that rats that ate a normal diet and were weaned at the typical and delayed times did not differ in terms of bodyweight in adulthood. But rats that had a delayed wean time and were fed a high-fat diet were leaner than those that were weaned at the typical time and fed a high-fat diet. The delayed rats also had higher energy expenditures and more active brown fat, a type of fatty tissue involved in thermogenesis, or heat production. The delayed rats' brown fat contained higher quantities of various proteins involved in thermogenesis, including fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21). FGF21 activates neurons in the brain involved in metabolic regulation.
These findings suggest that prolonged breastfeeding protects against obesity in later life, likely mediated by the influence of FGF21 on metabolic regulation. Learn more about the beneficial effects of breastfeeding for both infants and mothers in our overview article.
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Excess artificial light exposure increases risk of obesity in preschool aged children www.sciencedaily.com
Artificial light exposure increases the risk for obesity among children. Light is the primary signal that entrains the body’s master clock to set its 24-hour circadian cycle. Consequently, the body is synchronized to external light-dark cycles. In recent decades, exposure to light from artificial sources (rather than natural ones) has increased, paralleling the global increases in obesity among adults. Findings from a 2016 study suggest that exposure to artificial light increases the risk for obesity among children.
Global health experts estimate that more than 42 million children under the age of five years have obesity, roughly one-fourth of whom live in developing nations. Obesity increases a person’s risk for developing chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and some cancers. It also imposes considerable financial costs at the individual, healthcare system, and national level.
The study involved 48 preschool-aged children receiving daycare services in Australia. The investigators measured the children’s baseline body mass index (BMI), sleep duration and timing, light exposure, and physical activity levels via clinical assessment, parent questionnaires, and light and activity trackers. They repeated these measures 12 months later.
They found that at baseline, children who had longer early exposure to moderate intensity light (such as that from artificial sources) were more likely to have higher BMI, while children who had longer afternoon exposure to bright light (such as that from natural sources) tended to have lower BMI. At the second assessment, the investigators found that even after taking into account sleep duration and timing, BMI, and activity levels, children who had more total light exposure at baseline (due to having earlier exposure) gained more weight than their peers. Specifically, for every hour earlier that the children were exposed to light, they experienced a 0.6 unit increase in BMI. The investigators posited that although this was a small increase, it could be an indicator of a life-long trajectory toward weight gain.
These findings suggest that greater light exposure, especially when it occurs early in the day from artificial light sources, contributes to weight gain in children. Interestingly, adults that receive early exposure to bright light typically sleep better – a key to maintaining a healthy weight. Learn more in this clip featuring Dr. Matthew Walker.
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Sugars found in human breast milk boost cognitive flexibility. www.tandfonline.com
Breastfeeding during early childhood is associated with positive life outcomes, ranging from improved metabolic health to greater cognitive ability. Researchers believe this effect stems from human breast milk being particularly rich in indigestible sugars, many of which are exclusive to the human species and known as human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). Now, a new study reports that a particular class of HMOs may be uniquely crucial – at least when it comes to cognitive development.
The researchers conducted their study in piglets, whose anatomical and cognitive development resembles that of human children. Starting at two weeks of age, piglets were randomly selected to receive one of four milk replacement formulas: a control formula mimicking the oligosaccharide composition of pig milk, and three others containing various types of HMOs.
Eight weeks later, piglets were transitioned to a solid diet and trained on a challenging memory task that required them to remember which four out of 16 possible locations in a large arena contained hidden food rewards. For an extra challenge, they started each new trial from a different drop-off point, which meant that they had to actively engage with their surroundings to navigate to the rewarded spots.
Then the animals completed a test of cognitive flexibility – the ability to adapt to changing environments and rules. The researchers baited a new set of four locations with the food rewards and watched how quickly piglets reacted to the change. They found that the piglets that had consumed formula containing sialylated HMOs (HMOs containing a special sugar called sialic acid) were better learners than their peers, especially those whose formula mimicked pig milk. This last group were slowest to learn the new reward locations and more likely to accidentally re-visit spots where they had already collected a reward – a sign of short-term memory lapse.
These results suggest that sialylated HMOs are a particularly crucial component of breast milk for the development of flexible cognition. This effect might be underpinned by the oligosaccharides' high content of sialic acid, which is found in brain cell membranes and implicated in regulating cellular communication, developmental gene activity, and myelination, (the process of coating neuronal axons in fatty tissue that speeds up signaling). Learn more about HMOs and other beneficial components of breast milk in this episode featuring Dr. Rhonda Patrick.
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Micronutrient supplementation before pregnancy improves children’s long-term intellectual functioning. academic.oup.com
Pregnancy and early childhood are periods of human development when the body has an increased requirement for micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Animal studies have shown the importance of preconception nutrition for offspring development; however, long-term human trials are lacking. Investigators aimed to determine the long-term effects of preconception micronutrient supplementation on children’s intellectual functioning.
Several micronutrients play critical roles in fetal development. For example, folic acid supplementation during pregnancy prevents neural tube defects, and iron plays an important role in brain maturation, promoting cell division, myelination, and synaptic development. Less is known about the importance of other micronutrients, however.
The researchers assigned over 5,000 female participants to take folic acid (2,800 micrograms) only, iron plus folic acid (60 milligrams iron and 2800 micrograms folic acid), or multiple micronutrients (15 micronutrients including iron and folic acid) for an average of 33 weeks between baseline and conception. Researchers tracked 1,300 of the participants' children from birth to the age of six. They tested the children on multiple domains of intelligence and collected information regarding maternal health and home life.
Compared to children whose mothers received only folic acid, children in the iron plus folic acid and mixed micronutrient group performed better in multiple domains, including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. This effect was strongest for children whose mothers consumed the supplements for greater than 26 weeks before conception. The effects of supplementation were also stronger for children born to households with low socioeconomic status.
The authors concluded that preconception micronutrient supplementation is important to optimize child development and recommended the promotion of supplementation to all females of child-bearing age.
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A woman's cardiovascular health influences her children's cardiovascular health. www.sciencedaily.com
Cardiovascular disease is an umbrella term that includes coronary artery disease, heart attack, and stroke, among others. Together, these diseases are the primary cause of death among people living in the United States. Findings from a recent study indicate that a woman’s cardiovascular health influences her children’s cardiovascular health.
The study drew on data from nearly 6,000 mother-father-child triads of participants enrolled in the Framingham Heart Study, a long-term, ongoing study of cardiovascular disease risk among people living in Framingham, Massachusetts. The authors of the study scored the participants' cardiovascular health according to the American Heart Association scoring system, ranking them as having poor, intermediate, or ideal cardiovascular health.
The study spanned nearly 72,000 person-years, during which 718 cardiovascular events occurred. Children of mothers whose cardiovascular health was ideal lived nine more years free of cardiovascular disease than those whose mothers had poor cardiovascular health. Onset of poor cardiovascular health occurred earlier among children whose mothers had poor cardiovascular health, with nearly twice the risk of early-onset cardiovascular disease compared with children of women with ideal cardiovascular health.
These findings suggest that a woman’s cardiovascular health can predict that of her children’s and underscore the importance of public health and clinical interventions designed to improve cardiovascular fitness.
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Nanoparticles in air pollution accumulate in the brains of young adults: A common denominator in neurodegenerative disease? www.sciencedaily.com
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) are the two most common neurodegenerative conditions in older adults, affecting a combined 36 million people worldwide. Evidence suggests that exposure to air pollution increases the risk of developing these diseases. Findings from a recent study demonstrate that particulate matter in air pollution accumulates in the brains of young adults and may serve as a common denominator in the pathophysiology of AD and PD.
Particulate matter in air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets. It is present in fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrograms or less. Ultrafine particles less than 1 microgram in diameter, referred to as nanoparticles, are often enriched in highly reactive metals such as iron, aluminum, titanium, and others. They may serve as catalysts for reactive oxygen species formation and promote protein misfolding and aggregation. Nanoparticles in air pollution are not regulated and carry many health risks. They are also present in food additives and food packaging materials.
The authors of the study documented biomarkers of AD and PD present in brainstem samples taken during the autopsies of 186 healthy children and young adults (age range, 11 months to 27 years) living in the metro area of Mexico City, a region known for its high levels of air pollution. They also conducted magnetic remanence studies to quantify the presence of metal-rich nanoparticles in the brainstem samples. Finally, using high resolution scanning and transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X ray analysis, they identified the composition, location, size, and shape of nanoparticles in the substantia nigra region of a randomly chosen single sample taken from the larger group. Damage to the substantia nigra is a hallmark of PD.
They found that all of the brainstem samples contained iron-, aluminum-, and titanium-rich nanoparticles. The quantity of nanoparticles varied among the brain samples, likely due to the level and duration of exposure. The authors posited that these nanoparticles could have been acquired via both oral and respiratory routes from food sources and airborne exposures, respectively. Damage to the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and neuromelanin in the single brainstem sample correlated with the presence of iron-, aluminum-, and titanium-rich nanoparticles.
These findings suggest that exposure to nanoparticles is pervasive, with evidence confirmed as early as 11 months of age. Such exposures may put people living in urban areas where high levels of air pollutants are present at greater risk for developing AD and PD.
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Decreased exposure to air pollution associated with improved cognitive development and increases BDNF levels in children. www.sciencedaily.com
Exposure to air pollutants is associated with an increased risk of developing many health disorders, including heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and acute respiratory infections. Some evidence suggests that exposure to air pollution can impair neurological development in children. A 2014 study showed that reducing exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was associated with improved cognitive development and increased BDNF levels in children.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are produced during the combustion of coal, oil, gasoline, trash, tobacco, and wood. High-temperature cooking, such as grilling, promotes the formation of PAHs in meat and other foods. PAHs promote the formation of DNA adducts – covalent modifications of DNA that can drive carcinogenesis.
The study involved two cohorts of mother-child pairs who lived near a coal plant in China. One cohort of pairs was made up of 150 women who were pregnant while the coal power plant was operational and the other was made up of 158 women who were pregnant after it closed. None of the women smoked, and they all lived within 2.5 kilometers (about 1.5 miles) from the coal plant.
The authors of the study analyzed BDNF levels and their relationship to adduct formation and developmental outcomes in the two cohorts. They collected umbilical cord blood and maternal blood samples and measured the amount of DNA adducts in the samples. They also measured plasma levels of BDNF. When the children reached the age of two years, they underwent standardized testing that assessed motor, adaptive, language, and social development.
The children who were born to women who were pregnant after the plant closed had lower levels of PAH-DNA adducts, higher concentrations of BDNF, and higher developmental scores than those who were born to women who were pregnant when the plant was operational. Higher BDNF levels were associated with developmental scores. The findings suggest that reducing exposure to air pollutants during pregnancy lowers levels of PAH-DNA adducts and increases BDNF levels in infants.
Interestingly, clinical trials have demonstrated that sulforaphane, a compound derived from cruciferous vegetables (especially broccoli sprouts), can reduce the harmful effects of exposure to air pollutants (including PAHs) in humans. Sulforaphane works by switching on the activity of the body’s in-house detoxication pathways. Learn more about sulforaphane in this podcast featuring Dr. Jed Fahey.
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Low BDNF during pregnancy is associated with depression during pregnancy and subsequent low fetal birth weight. www.sciencedaily.com
Depression is the most common form of mental health condition worldwide, affecting more than 322 million people. The disorder affects women disproportionately and is particularly common during pregnancy. Findings from a 2017 study demonstrated that serum levels of BDNF drop considerably during pregnancy, potentially increasing a woman’s risk for depression.
BDNF modulates synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation – critical aspects of memory storage and brain function. Low BDNF levels are associated with increased risk for depression00181-1/fulltext?cc=y=).
The study involved 139 healthy pregnant women (77 Blacks and 62 whites) who were assessed three times during their pregnancies (once during each trimester) and again at four to 11 weeks postpartum. The authors of the study measured the participants' BDNF and cortisol levels via blood samples, gathered demographic data, and conducted psychosocial assessments. They reviewed the women’s medical records to determine their infants' birth weights.
The results of their assessments indicated that the women’s BDNF levels dropped considerably over the course of their pregnancies but rebounded during the postpartum period. In general, Black women had higher BDNF levels and lower cortisol levels than white women during pregnancy and postpartum. Lower levels of BDNF during the second and third trimesters were associated with higher risk for depression and lower birthweight babies, regardless of race.
Interestingly, these findings contradict those of an earlier study in rats and humans. However, the authors of the current study suggested that the conflicting findings may have been due to differences in assays used to measure BDNF.
Evidence indicates that exercise increases BDNF. Exercise is generally considered safe for pregnant women and may be a way to prevent some of the changes in mood that occur during pregnancy.